Pnictogen Definition

A pnictogen is  a member of the nitrogen group of elements, Group 15 of the periodic table (formerly numbered as Group V or Group VA). This group consists of nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, and ununpentium.  The pnictogens are noted for their ability to form stable compounds, thanks to their tendency to form double and triple covalent bonds. The pnictogens are solids at room temperature, except for nitrogen, which is a gas. The defining characteristic of pnictogens is that atoms of these elements have 5 electrons in their outer electron shell. There are 2 paired electrons in the s subshell and 3 unpaired electrons in the p subshell, putting these elements 3 electrons shy of filling the outermost shell.   Binary  compounds  from this group are termed  pnictides.

Essay on Abortion - 712 Words

Abortion In America alone, approximately 1.5 million abortions are performed every year. That is about one abortion every twenty seconds, yet nothing is being done to reduce these numbers. Why does the law allow the murders of so many innocent babies to continue? The answer is simple, it shouldn’t. Abortion is wrong and should be stopped. This fact is apparent when one sees the suffering that abortion causes, not only to the baby, but to many others as well. All this damage can be so easily avoided when one sees the alternatives and the truths behind abortion myths. Abortion has brought about suffering to many people in more ways than one. Clearly, a lot of the damage is done to the baby. It will never have a chance to live. It has†¦show more content†¦Maternal bonding is reduced, and in some cases, abortion has even been linked to child abuse. It is evident that the suffering far outweighs whatever benefits might be found in abortions. Instead of striving to find the good in abortion, contemplate the numerous advantages of the alternatives. Parenthood is very rewarding, even according to Yveline, who became a mother at a mere twelve years of age. She had this to say about her daughter, Katrina, â€Å"I love to tell her I love her. And I just feel all her love in return. There’s nothing quite like it, the love between a mother and child.† The relationship between parent and child is a special bond that should never be underestimated. The task of raising a child can be a formidable one, but nowadays, there are organizations that can help. Most of these establishments are specialized to help teenage parents who want to continue their education while providing their baby with as much as possible. Despite the help of these organizations, many people are simply unprepared for the challenges and responsibilities of parenthood. For that reason, there’s another option available - adoption. Adoption is advantageous to all parties involved, th e baby, and both sets of biological and adoptive parents. Every year, there are 400,000 couples in America that are looking for a baby to adopt. These couples will be good parents that are more than willing to provide a baby with a good home, a good life, and all the other thingsShow MoreRelatedAbortion : Abortion And Abortion998 Words   |  4 PagesAbortion Abortion is defined in several ways all of which stop a pregnancy. There are different ways of abortion, which are spontaneous abortion, surgical abortion, and medical abortion. Abortion has been arguable topic for decades. One can neither believe abortion to be good nor bad. The idea of individuality and human life is not quite the same. Idea of human life has come from conception; simultaneously on the other hand, fertilizer eggs used for in vitro fertilization are also human lives butRead MoreAbortion : Abortion And Abortion Essay921 Words   |  4 PagesPaper: Abortion Laws The topic of abortion is a widely debated and very heated topic in Texas. The Republican party’s platform supports family values and are completely against abortion under any circumstances, including abortifacients. The Democrat party’s platform supports the rights for women to make choices about their own bodies. They support abortifacients and a person’s right to have an abortion. There is also a large percentage of those that are in the middle in that they believe abortion shouldRead MoreAbortion, The, And Abortion998 Words   |  4 PagesIn the United States there are more than a billion abortions performed each year. Since the court case Roe vs Wade in 1973 more than 56 million babies have been murdered in the United States before they had the chance to take their first breath (Snyder, Michael). These statics along with many more show the huge injustice that is happening in the country I call home. Abortion is defined as the removal of an embryo or fetus from the uterus in order to end a pregnancy. It can include any of variousRead MoreAbortion : Abortion And Anti Abortion1624 Words   |  7 Pagesa very large controversy between the ideas about abortion and anti-abortion. Different religious views, beliefs, peoples many different customs and even people of different cultures all have their own preferences and ideas on the take of this political issue. Views against abortion can lead to as much of an impact as a violent/non violent riots outside of an abortion clinics, to something as simple article in the newspaper. The belief on abortion that leads to a lot of the controversy is that inRead MoreAbortion, The, And Abortion Essay1656 Words   |  7 Pages An abortion is when the pregnancy of a women is ended; it is called sometimes Termination of pregnancy. There are two types of abortion. The first type is the spontaneous abortion; it occurs within the first two months. What causes it is frequently unknown yet is probably the results of intra-uterine contamination, or limited attachment in the building unborn child to the interior coating walls in the womb (uterus). Such conditions this unborn child, if the idea advances further, mayRead MoreAbortion, The, And Abortion953 Words   |  4 Pagesdebates that is constantly talked about is abortion. When it comes to abortion, the laws vary depending on the state you live in. Whether people support or are against abortion, few actually know about the abortion process. Have you ever heard of suction aspiration or prostaglandin chemical abortion? Those are two of the various methods that are performed in the different trimesters of pregnancy. According to writer Steven Ertelt of Li feNews.com, Oklahoma’s abortion laws are restrictive compared to otherRead MoreAbortion : Abortion And Abortion1930 Words   |  8 PagesAbortion has been around for quite some time. Laws have been set allowing it and banning it during different periods of time. The procedures that can be done are all very different. There is a medical abortion involving drugs and there are surgical abortion involving a more invasive procedure. There are also different points of view on it. There are those who fully support the termination of a pregnancy and those who are completely against it. There are many factors to consider and very differentRead MoreAbortion : The Fight For Abortion1543 Words   |  7 PagesAlthough abortion was decriminalized in 1973, the fight for abortion rights did not end with Roe v. Wade. Just in the past three years, there have been systematic restrictions on abortion rights sweeping the country sate by state. In 2013, 22 states enacted 70 antiabortion meas ures, including pre-viability abortion bans, unnecessary doctor and clinic procedures, limits on medicated abortion, and bans on insurance coverage of abortion In 2011, 92 abortion restrictions were enacted, an in 2012, thatRead MoreAbortion : The Issue Of Abortion1212 Words   |  5 PagesThe topic of abortion has been an ongoing debate for many years. According to ProChoice.org, abortion was legal in in the days of the early settlers. At the time that the constitution was adopted abortions were legal. Abortions were openly advertised and performed before the first fetal movement (13-16 weeks from the start of a women’s last period). The concern for abortion started in the late 1800’s when immigrants were coming into the country in large numbers and the fear was that they would produceRead MoreIs Abortion Wrong? Abortion?1321 Words   |  6 PagesIs Abortion Wrong? There continues to be a hot debate on abortion. Some people feel that this issue is neither right nor wrong, just simply a â€Å"to each his own† idiom. Those who are for abortion, tend to believe a woman has a right to decide what goes in her body and if she is capable of bringing life into this world. On the other side, there is an equal fervent opposition that killing an innocent unborn baby is wrong and unjustly, murder in the first degree of a helpless baby. Not only are they

Ship management perspective Free Essays

Ship management (KLSM) is a ship management company located in Singapore and involved in the technical management of a fleet of 30 container and tanker ships. It is a fully owned subsidiary company of K Line in Japan and all the ships managed by KLSM are owned by its parent company in Japan. Technical management activities include provision on crew members to man the ships, implementing and malntalnlng safety and quality management systems on board the vessels, maintaining safe and satisfactory vessel operations and maintenance of hull nd machinery on board the ship. We will write a custom essay sample on Ship management perspective or any similar topic only for you Order Now The company is involved in procurement and supply management of various goods and services including stores, spare parts, bunkers, food and beverage, manpower etc. One of the major functions of the company Is the maintenance of hull and machinery of vessels under Its management, Technical superintendents are responsible for the maintenance matters on board their controlled ships whilst managers are responsible for formulating and overseeing policy making and implementation. A major part of maintenance involves the supply of stores and spare parts to the vessel. Each ship is fitted on board with a large number of complex equipments and machinery manufactured by hundreds of different makers and thus spare parts lists for all the equipment and machinery on board, runs into hundreds of pages. With the life of a ship being 20-30 years, several of these equipments/parts become obsolete and even OEM’s close shop during such course. Procuring spares and delivering these on board ships (in good time) that are trading worldwide thus becomes a great challenge for the technical department and in turn for the company. Presently the responslblllty of procuring spare parts for each vessel Iles with the echnical superintendent In charge of the vessel. An admin lady assists him in this work. The technical superintendent, who is responsible for the smooth running of the vessel and its machinery, spends a majority of his time in such procurement and supply issues. It might be a good idea to outsource this function to another department or to another organization altogether. This would free up the technical superintendents time to work on more critical operational and technical issues where his expertise might be better utlllzed and also perhaps make the procurement and upply management more efficient and organized. The decision to make or buy could be critical and various factors must be considered. Transaction Cost Economics is a central theory in Strategy. It addresses questions about why firms exist, how firms define their boundaries, and how they must govern operations. Transaction cost economics suggests that the costs and difficulties production) and sometimes markets as an economic governance structure. An intermediate mechanism, called hybrid or relational, between these two extremes has recently emerged as a new governance structure. Coase (1937) defined the term transaction costs by asking two fundamental questions: â€Å"Why is there any organization? † and â€Å"Why isn’t all production carried out by one big firm? † Reason is that there are transaction costs that determine what is done in the market, with price as the regulating mechanism, and what is done inside the firm, with bureaucracy as the regulator. Within this framework, all transactions carry a cost, either as an external market transaction cost or an internal bureaucratic transaction cost. The limit to the size of the firm is reached when the costs of rganizing additional transactions within the firm exceed the costs of carrying out the same transactions through the market (Coase 1993). The most important market transaction costs are the cost of determining the price of a product or service, the cost of negotiating and creating the contract, and the cost of information failure. Williamson (1975, 1985) extended the argument by noting that two behavioral assumptions are critical. First, individuals in an organization are boundedly rational. Meaning individuals in an organization have the ability to make rational decisions ased on the limited knowledge they possess. This limitation makes it impossible to structure perfect contracts, and any contract will be incomplete even if all information is available. Second, individuals behave opportunistically. This means that they will act in self interest with guile. Organizing the vertical chain is an important part of business strategy. Deciding which parts of the vertical chain must be produced in-house and which parts must be out-sourced, is an important strategic decision defined by the vertical boundaries of the firm. This decision is simply called the â€Å"make or buy’ decision. The company must compare the benefits and costs of in-house production versus using the market. Traditionally such procurement and supply function has been carried out by technical superintendents so they will always be fully aware of the maintenance requirements and status of spare parts and repair. Completely outsourcing the function to another organization could result in the loss of control and loss of critical business contacts in the marketplace. Also then, reliance on a third party for such procurement and supply could be detrimental to the performance of the vessel in ase of non performance or poor performance which might be realized only after the problem occurs. Perhaps a better way to manage the sourcing and supply of spare parts on board ships would be to invest in an integrated software solution linking planned maintenance systems, spare part requisitions and approved vendor database worldwide, to optimize supply management. The procurement and supply part of the can work closely with the technical department or be a subset of the technical department itself. As the maintenance system will be linked to the spare part equisition and supply system, the technical superintendent retains overview and control on this aspect at all times whilst being able to focus on his primary responsibilities. All planned maintenance is scheduled into the system and spare parts required to perform each maintenance item will also be part of the database. Standard inventory of parts must always be maintained and a requisition for supply of these will be automatically generated for the superintendent’s approval as and when a planned maintenance Job is recorded on board the vessel system as complete. The age of the internet and speed of communication between ship and shore as well as amongst parties ashore has changed drastically. Automated information interchange and highly intelligible databases have made online purchasing and inventory maintenance very easy and efficient. Vendor approval and management could be an integrated part of the software solution and any requirement of spare parts supply would come with a recommended approved vendor list which could be targeted for action. A variety of sourcing strategies could then be used for procurement of spares onsidering the technical complexity, lead time necessary, logistical issues etc. To help in formulation of appropriate sourcing and competitive strategies, KralJic (1983) developed a simple positioning matrix based on these factors. This model could be applied by the purchasing department for procuring different spare parts with different levels of complexity in terms of source, logistics, coat, lead time etc. Pareto’s 80/20 rule may be applied to classify spares into A, B and C class items and determine strategic positioning and risk. Environmental and ethical issues are of growing concern as regulators continue to ighten the already stringent regulations for garbage disposal at sea. All supplies that come on board the vessel packaged substantially and this eventually generates waste on board. A conscious effort needs to be made to push suppliers to use more eco friendly and bio degradable packaging and to have the vessel return all unwanted packaging back to the supplier for safe and eco friendly disposal ashore rather than disposal at sea or incineration. Instructions must be sent to all Vendor management and approvals must include vetting for compliance with standards like ISO 14001 etc. Another important supply management area for the company is bunkers. Fuel oil, diesel oil and lube oils supplied on board vessels are referred to as bunkers and more commonly the work bunkers denotes fuel oil. Challenges faced here are mainly to do with availability, pricing and quality of bunkers stemmed. Since bunkers are supplied worldwide, optimal ports are identified for good quality and reasonably priced procurement. Several vendors are used at various ports worldwide and price negotiations are tough with little guarantee of quality at several of these. Bunker for vessel management and could be integrated with same. Such bunker supply modules help in optimizing bunker stems and also include capability of having an approved vendor database. Hedging against bunker price volatility is another tool that must be considered as the price of fuel oil in the recent times has shown extreme volatility in the short term. Experts must be employed to carry out this function in house or alternatively hedge incorporated supply contracts must be negotiated with standard supplier groups who have the capability to supply bunkers t most major and frequent bunkering ports around the world. Such activity would effectively reduce the risk of exposure to extreme price fluctuations. Besides supply management of goods, the company also faces challenges in the supply management of services. All ships need to be manned with a suitable regulated complement of officers and crew members. These crew members are contracted for a certain period and proper rotation of staff upon completion of contracts poses a logistical challenge. The supply of manpower to each vessel involves a rostering and planning process which becomes highly complex due to a arge gamut of regulatory requirements on competency, standards and other facets. The crew manning department struggles to have the right people on board the right vessel at the right time and there is a constant struggle with retention rates as well. Resumes of all crew members are manually updated and maintained and the rostering as well is performed manually. An electronic system or module to cover this function will be extremely significant in increasing the departments efficiency and eventually benefit the overall organization as retention rates increase and crew erformance is enhanced. The strategic supply wheel (Cousins, 2006) suggests that it is imperative to maintain an alignment of corporate and supply policies. There seems to be good alignment of policies within KLSM and as a small company with less than 50 staff, this is relatively easy to implement. With acute cost focus without compromise on quality of critical items, the strategy is uniform and understood by all involved. Overall KLSM deals with several unique supply chain management challenges because of the nature of the company’s functions and ships trading worldwide. An overall efficient supply management strategy implemented at all levels would become almost imperative for successful achievement of the company’s goals which is primarily safe, efficient and cost effective maintenance of the ships and their operations. A comprehensive software solution to replace a lot of the traditional manual work in relation to supply management will certainly help optimize outcome, considerably improve cost efficiency and mitigate risk inherent in the manual system. Careful selection from available range of software in the marketplace will need to be one and suitable packages compared before making the important decision of which product to use. Training of all staff involved with operations both on board ships and ashore will then become necessary to fully exploit the software’s capabilities and achieve desired results. How to cite Ship management perspective, Papers

The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock Analysis Essay Example For Students

The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock Analysis Essay When our lives begin, we are innocent and life is beautiful, but as we grow older and time slowly and quickly passes we discover that not everything about life is quite so pleasing. Along with the joys and happiness we experience there is also pain, sadness and loneliness. Hemingways A Clean, Well-Lighted Place, and Eliots The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock both tell us about older men who are experiencing these dreadful emotions. In Hemingways short story there are three characters, two waiters and their customer. Of these three, two are older men who are experiencing extreme loneliness. The customer sits alone drinking his glasses of brandy slowly, and very carefully, peacefully becoming drunk. While he is meticulously drinking his alcohol, the two waiters talk about him. They discuss his suicide attempt of the week past. The younger waiter doesnt seem to understand why a man with money would try to end his life. Although the older waiter seems to have an insight into the customers reason, he doesnt share this with the younger one. He seems to know why this deaf old man is so depressed, and sits there alone and silent. When the younger waiter rushes the customer, the older waiter objects. He knows what it is like to go home to emptiness at night, while the younger man goes home to his wife. The older waiter remarks on the differences between him and his younger companion when he says, I have never had confidence and I am not young. He tells the waiter and us that he prefers to stay in a well-lit place instead of going home to darkness and loneliness. When he does go home, he waits until daylight to sleep. The light seems to cure his inner darkness, his despair at being alone, and his despair at the nada-ness in his life but only temporarily. In T. S. Eliots poem J. Alfred Prufrock tells the reader of his fear of rejection. He is a lonely man and wants to ask someone to make his life a little less desolate. He doesnt know what to say or how to ask. We are at a party, a setting Prufrock seems to visit often. He tells us about himself, his bald spot, his skinny arms and legs. He knows that the people at the party will talk about those flaws in his appearance. Prufrock is so unsure of himself that while trying to find a way to ask his question, he loses the opportunity to ask it. He loses his chance at ending the nothingness that seems to fill his life as well. His uncertainty and his inferiority complex are touchingly revealed when he tells us, I have heard the mermaids singing, each to each. // I do not think they will sing to me. It is this forlorn attitude that moves us. He is extremely lonely and yet, he cannot do anything about it. In both these works men talk of loneliness and sadness. They are all alone in a world filled with people. The misery they experience from this feeling of solitude moves the reader because we have all at one point or another felt likewise even if not to that intensity.

Alices Adventures in Wonderland A Child Lost in a World of Adults essays

Alices Adventures in Wonderland A Child Lost in a World of Adults essays Lewis Carrolls Wonderland is a queer little universe where a not so ordinary girl is faced with the contradicting nature of the fantastic creatures who live there. Alices Adventures in Wonderland is a childs struggle to survive in the condescending world of adults. The conflict between child and adult gives direction to Alices adventures and controls all the outstanding features of the work- Alices character, her relationship with other characters, and the dialogue. Alice in Wonderland is on one hand so nonsensical that children sometimes feel ashamed to have been interested in anything so silly (Masslich 107). The underlying message of Alices Adventures in Wonderland is a rejection of The character of Alice is not at all like what you would find in a typical childrens book. The character of Alice herself is a bit puzzling, even to the modern child, because it does not fit a stereotype. How much more unusual she must have seemed to Victorian children, used to girl angels fated for death (in Dickens, Stowe, and others), or to impossibly virtuous little ladies, or to naughty girls who eventually reform in response to heavy adult pressure... But Alice is neither naughty nor overly nice. Her curiosity leads her into her initial adventure and most of the latter ones in the book... (Leach 119). As Alice makes her way through Wonderland , she is faced with many pompous personalities that have their own ways of thinking and do not understand why Alice does not agree with their views. Alice takes into consideration what each character says. After becoming quite confused and disgruntled she learns that everyone in Wonderland is in fact mad. Once she has learned this she politely rejects all offers made by characters and tells them how things are in her mind. More often than not, she is chastised for her opinions, but soon ...

Sophie essays

Sophie essays Sophies World, by Jostein Gaarder, is a fantasy novel that explores the history of philosophy. It takes place in Norway in the 1990s. Some of the themes in the book are philosophy and free will. Dreams in the book often foreshadow events that occur later. Sophie is the primary narrator but point of view begins to switch between Sophie and Hilde. Albert Knags point of view is also told in a few pages of the novel. The story comes to a climax when Sophie and Alberto disappear from the party. The falling action is when Hilde gives Albert Knag a taste of his own medicine, while Sophie and Alberto explore life as a spirit. The characters are Sophie, Alberto, Hilde, Albert Knag, Sophies mother, Joanna, Hildes mother, Sophies father, Jeremy, and Hermes. Sophie is the main character. She is a creation of Albert Knags, and is meant to be a birthday present for Hilde. She is the same age as Hilde and their birthdays are on the same day. She learns from Albert but she thinks by herself. She is critical of everyone around her. She is very mature for her age and is quite the little philosopher. Although Alberto knows more about philosophy than Sophie, when they escape Albert Knags mind and gain an existence of their own, as spirits existing within Hildes world, Sophie gets along better. Alberto is Sophies philosophy teacher. He is a true philosopher in the fact that he thinks he knows nothing. He values time spent with company that can teach him something. In the beginning he is the one teaching Sophie but in the end they treat each other as equals. He holds onto his ability to think as the one thing that makes him human. He is great at reasoning and thinking things out. Hilde is Albert Knags daughter. She is why Sophie and Alberto were created. She is compassionate. She is willing to believe in things no matter what anyone else thinks, like Sophie. On her fifteenth birt...

When Bad Things Happen to Good People by Harold Kushner Essay

When Bad Things Happen to Good People by Harold Kushner - Essay Example In spite of all the misfortunes, Job remains faithful and loyal to God. He does not denounce God, but he insists that he wants more explanation for the misfortunes. His friends such as Bildad, Zophar and Eliphaz claim that it is his fault. However, Job is not convinced with that explanation. The three friends criticized and accused Job for his problems. It is evident that the friends were jealous of Job since he was a man of God and they were Satan’s followers. His three friends pretended to be sorry for what Job was going throughand wept before Job. God came in the form of tornado to speak to Job. He questioned Job’s whereabouts concerning his creation. God also questioned Job’s power and knowledge of animate nature. Finally, God questioned Job’s audacity to correct Him. Job responded by saying that he was unworthy and not significant to question God’s ways and will. After some time, God reappears in the form of a whirlwind and challenged Job to prepare himself like a man ready for a battle. God questioned him if he was convinced of his righteousness than God’s. Job responded by confessing his foolish ways and words. He agrees that God’s ways are the best. Job ends up

Factors in High-Impact Innovation Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Factors in High-Impact Innovation - Term Paper Example Jewkes contextualized his research by noting the underlying mythology about high-impact innovation, which is basically that it requires a lot of manpower, a lot of resources, a lot of money and fancy equipment, and complex bureaucratic support (Jewkes). While not proving the inverse of this notion, his findings indicated more variability than popular assumptions support. In examining an impressive range of high-impact innovations, more than half were done by individuals, working independently and with few resources, either in isolation or within an organization in which they had freedom to experiment and analyze on their own initiative without having to cooperate in a team (Jewkes). Inventing can be a group process, of course, but the kind of individuals who contributed some of the most important discoveries and basic products of the 19th and 20th centuries were not even assigned to a project to do so and, in various intriguing cases, were not even formally qualified in the area they explored, discovered or invented within. Sometimes it was an accident and other times individuals were pursuing interests rather than careers. (Jewkes) Furthermore, it seems that many such individuals are not people who negotiate a career field and social skills that would endear them to a team or get them appointed to a formal position in the area to which they greatly contributed. They are often people who question every assumption, however consensual (Jewkes). They are eccentric and want to be left alone to explore their own curiosity. Many such individuals can be characterized as loners. The work of inventing has private elements to it. Thinking and creative â€Å"messing around† with ideas and materials needs a climate of unconstrained thinking, uninterrupte3d reflection and working autonomy. It can call forth heroic effort. The group dynamics of a team can constrain thinking and redirect creative ideas, or even humiliate them. Cooperation may overly-structure the proce ss and conflict may weaken it. Jewkes notes that the human mind, working alone, can organize and synthesize ideas far more efficiently than a team. There is a loss of creative power when the individual has to adjust to team members. Perhaps these are clues to why so many initial innovations came from lone individuals (Jewkes). Jewkes distinguishes between initial pioneering discoveries and inventions and the development of those discoveries and inventions (Jewkes). Development will generally benefit from the resources and monetary investment, as well as additional input and expertise that can be found in a university setting or in a larger organization. While inspiration and exploration is often initially a private matter, development and exploitation is often a more cooperative and planned one. Some stunning chemical innovations were accomplished by General Motors (Freon refrigerant and tetraethyl lead), but their pattern was more typical of the lone hero, since they are not a chem ical company, but a motor engineering company, and since their innovation involved an element of chance (Jewkes). Large companies have contributed significant innovations out of strong research programs, maybe because research itself has a private, lone hero aspect which can be done with a certain amount of autonomy by an individual or a small team, and merely funded and later expanded by the larger organizati

Business Simulation Games Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Business Simulation Games - Essay Example The blending of content curricular and design simulation technology gives the students risk-free opportunities that test various strategies that drive corporate activities. Our participation in such games gave us a chance of integrating strategic and financial strategies for their virtual businesses (Blazic, Ribeiro & Arh 2012, p. 13).  Serious computer games from a part of the new and emergent educational environment based on sophisticated technologies and elements of entertainment (William & Klass 2007, p. 4). For this case, there is a need to define a serious computer game. A serious game is one whose primary function is to provide education of any type rather than entertainment. The games provoke active learner involvement and as such, they form one of the best learning platforms for the students. There are unique properties of the games that define their relevance to the education system because they attract concentrations that other methods fail to do. This paper is, therefor e, a personal report of the strategies of a game played for group work projects. The paper has eleven parts, which altogether outline the strategies that the game employed and their relevance of the game to real-life situations. After the introduction, the ten remaining parts will proceed in the sequence outlined. Next, there shall be a competitive strategy, external overview analysis, internal summary analysis, the decisions taken, the results, and strategic directions. The remaining parts will discuss the underlying strategic principles, the key learning outcomes and finally, the reflections and conclusion.

Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer Process

Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer Process Attempts at cloning a mammal can be traced back to 1979, where the scientist Steen Willadsen successfully cloned a sheep embryo using nuclear transfer [1]. Since then numerous attempts have been made to replicate these results. Notably the birth of Dolly the sheep (1996) was a major development in this field; as she was the first mammal to be cloned from a fully differentiated somatic cell, using somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) [2]. This essay will describe the process of somatic cell nuclear transfer in light of mammalian cloning and the risks it poses to mammalian reproduction. The fertilization of mammalian gametes through natural reproduction is limited by the ability to preserve desirable traits after the extinction of an individual. Moreover, the reproductive success of natural fertilization is limited by the gestation length, estrus cycle, the efficiency of insemination during intercourse and Hayflick limit [3]. Furthermore, these limitations are chiefly important in livestock agriculture; where desired traits and alleles are more favourable for propagation. SCNT enables us to extract the nucleus of a fully differentiated somatic cell (diploid cells) and introduce it into an enucleated mature oocyte which is allowed to develop into an embryo; that is genetically identical to the host cell [4]. Other variations to this method are practised even though they all rely on the same principles. By this process, the limitations stated above become insignificant as specific mammals with the desired traits can be cloned to preserve the genome. However, this technique is still undeveloped and the success in producing cloned offspring is low. The success rate of SCNT is dependent on several factors; namely, selecting the right donor cell that will be most efficient to the nuclear transfer. In this process, fully differentiated somatic cells are selected based on their cell-cycle state and age. The G0 phase is most desired when selecting the donor cell as it has been shown to be the most effectual donor [5]. Conversely, deprivation of nutrient to the donor cells growing in vitro can also induce the cells to adopt the G0 resting phase. The age of donor cells also contribute to the success of cloning, the more aged the donor cell the less efficient SCNT becomes. Additionally, donor cells that are derived from more genetically diverse species are favoured, as it has been shown that cells obtained from inbred animals are less likely to be successful in cloning [6]. However, these factors are only relative to the limited species that have been examined and more factors may come to light as other species such as primates are subjected to SCNT. Once the donor somatic cells are identified, they are normally extracted from the skin of the donor mammal, using needle aspiration and avoiding unnecessary strain on the donor animal. Oocytogenesis is the process in which females produce oocytes. SCNT uses mature oocytes in metaphase-ll which are collected from the ovaries of the required animal [7]. The mature oocytes are enucleated using micromanipulation which penetrates the zona pellucida and removes the nucleus. There are two alternative routes which can be adopted when manipulating the process of the insemination of the nucleus donor cells into the mature oocytes. First, the Honolulu technique (developed by Wakayama) which uses brain cells, cumulus cells and sertoli cells as donors that are naturally in the G0/G1 phase. The nucleus of the somatic cell is aspirated and directly micro-injected into the oocyte using a piezo-impact pipette; which penetrates the zona pellucid and delivers the nucleus into the enucleated oocyte [8]. The oocytes are subsequently activated by exposing them to a medium containing Sr+2 that also contains cytochalasin-B which acts to prevent the formation polar bodies. Figure. 1[9] shows a diagrammatic representation of the Honolulu technique, highlighting that the nucleus is directly inserted into the mature oocyte. Secondly, the Roslin technique (used to create Dolly the sheep) cultures donor cells in vitro and deprives them of nutrients; forcing the cells to adopt the G0 phase. Subsequently, the enucleated oocyte is aligned next to the donor cell; such that the oocyte and donor cell are parallel to one another. Pulsating electrical currents are applied to fuse the oocyte and donor cell together, by inducing pore formation of the cell membrane [10]. Figure.1In the Honolulu and Roslin techniques the use of chemicals and electrical pulses induce the activation of the oocyte, which can subsequently develop into an embryo which is implanted into a surrogate host for progeny development. The activation of the oocyte induces major reprogramming of the differentiated donor nuclei back to its totipotent state [11]. This process is extremely intricate and the full biochemical mechanisms are not fully understood. However, extensive research has been completed in understanding an overview of oocyte reprogramming and epigenetic modification. The introduction of a somatic nucleus into the oocyte causes rapid deacetylation of histones on lysine residues, catalysed by histone deacetlase. Moreover, the donor chromatins also experience demethylation [12], which is also a method that is used to dedifferentiate the nuclei back to totipotent state. Aberrant or incomplete DNA reprogramming is thought to be a major contributor to abnormal development in embryos and clones which can explain why only 1% of SCNT are successful in producing fully developed clones. Figure.2The efficiency of the Honolulu technique and the success rate of cloning have been shown to be superior to the Roslin technique [12]. However, the overall success rate of cloning, irrespective of the method used is still considerably low, with only 1% success rate. Figure. 2 [13] shows the percentage of embryos surviving prior to implantation with surrogate and post implantation. Moreover, there are several risks associated with clones derived from mammalian SCNT. These risks also have ethical implications that follow. Phenotypic abnormalities that are associated with clones derived from SCNT ranges from aberrant telomere length (which can lead to premature ageing) to large offspring syndrome and irregular placenta development during embryonic growth. The telomere length and ageing of clones are thought to be directly correlated. Telomeres are situated on the ends of chromosomes and consist of numerous repetitive DNA bases that function to stabilise and prevent deterioration of the chromosome [14]. Experimental observations show that some species of mammals are prone to shorter telomere lengths in comparison with a control. It is also thought that the telomeres are not fully restored to the original length during SCNT. Such implications can suggest that the sizes of the somatic cell telomeres are inherited by the clones; therefore producing clones that have already aged [15]. Dolly lived until she was 6 years of age (half the age of an average sheep) and was shown to have shorter telomeres in comparison to a control (19 kb vs. 23 kb) implying that she died prematurely. However, shorter telomeres in clones are not universally applicable as in mice, bovine and cattle all showed similar lengths to their respective control, if not lon ger [16]. The occurrence of shorter telomere lengths in some species suggests that the donor cell species and genetic background govern it. Nevertheless, the exact cause of short telomere length is still not yet fully comprehendible, yet some studies indicate that it might be caused by incomplete reprogramming [17]. Large offspring syndrome (LOS) is characterised by larger than normal clones that have oversized organs and aberrant limb formation which all can lead to an increase in prevalence of organ defects and cardiovascular difficulties. These characteristics have been observed in cattle and can contribute to higher abortions rate and deformities in skeletal structure. However, offspringà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s derived from cloned mammals diagnosed with LOS, were shown not to have LOS [18]. This suggests that again irregular epigenetic reprogramming during SCNT is a contributor to LOS as the progeny of the clones (which are born naturally) fail to have LOS. Embryos that are derived from SCNT have been shown to have abnormal/enlarged placenta development (placentomegaly) during embryonic growth. The abnormalities occur in both bovine and mice [19] and can cause the developing fetus to die during pregnancy. The aberrant placenta in mice is shown to have an increased amount of insulin- like growth factor which can cause LOS in clones. Moreover, failure for the placenta to develop accordingly during the pregnancy of clones can cause immune-mediated abortion [20]. The risks to mammalian reproduction stated above can produce clones that are phenotypically defective which raises ethical concerns. The abnormalities in clones can cause harmful side effects and can lead to cloned mammals suffering. We have seen that some mammals show premature ageing which can ultimately lead to premature death. The welfare of these clones seems to be disregarded in the experiments that are conducted. Moreover, there are concerns that a small proportion of cloned animals can enter our food chain, which is thought to be unsafe. However, recent studies show that consumption of cloned animals is safe to homosapeins [21]. The prospect of human SCNT also has deep ethical implications. Current legislation in all countries prevents SCNT in humans. Nonetheless, the proposed benefits that SCNT offers (therapeutic cloning) may one day outweigh the ethical concerns. If this occurs, it would shake the foundations of tradition, as humans can be à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢producedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ asexually with their genomic sequence known [22]. This can lead to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"gene discrimination by other non cloned humans, and by cooperate companies who can prevent human clones (that may be prone to specific dieses) from obtaining insurance, for example. In conclusion, Somatic cell nuclear transfer has been successfully used to clone mammals from fully differentiated somatic cell. However, this technique is largely inefficient and a major Impediment is that only 1% of somatic cells successfully developed into clone. The lack of understanding on oocyte reprogramming can be contributed to the inefficiency of this technique. Moreover, this has lead to some clones showing abnormal phenotypic features which has major ethical implications. Nevertheless, somatic cell nuclear transfer shows great promise in the fields of medical therapeutics, agriculture and conservation once all aspects of its process are understood.

Early American Settlements :: essays research papers

How Much is Too Much? In order for any society to be successful there must be some kind of law and order. Without some established rules and regulations little would get done and there would be chaos and confusion. But in turn there is another side to the spectrum. At what point are the rules too much? There comes a point in which enforcements are overbearing and hinder the people under them. This often seems to be the case in early American times. Though these early laws benefited the foundation of church and state into a more united community, the often caused many hardships to the citizens under them. In studying laws in early American settlements it seems logical to look at Jamestown first. Jamestown had its problems from the beginning. One of the main ones was the colonists lack of desire to work. The work schedule of the day was considered easy even by modern day standards. Colonists were only required to work 6 hours a day, while the rest was reserved for personal leisure time. This from a colony that was practically starving to death. This is one of the few examples in which the laws in early colonial America were actually not harsh enough. But this was all about to change. By 1611 things were not good in Jamestown. Many more people had died than had survived the harsh east coast winters. People were still frolicking in the streets instead of working hard to ensure their survival. Then Sir Thomas Dale arrives in May of 1611. He was sent to bring discipline among the disorganized colonist, and discipline he brought. He published a set of rules now known as "Dales Laws." Many of these rules called for harsh punishments for what today would be thought of as relatively minor wrong doings. But where these rules too harsh? They did after all end up saving the colony. But at what price? Is it worth killing a man over petty theft of a hoe or axe if it leads to the eventual survival of his society? These are all hard questions with no definite anwsers. But one thing is for sure, had it not been for Dale and his strict enforcements the colony of Jamestown would have certainly perished. Two other early colonies that deserve mention were the Pilgrim colony at Plymouth and the Puritan settlement in Massachusetts Bay. The colonists which resided here were unlike the early settlers of Jamestown in that order was always a primary concern of theirs.